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Morphology:Word Classes
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Nominals
- Nouns: names a person, place or thing (incl. physical objects, untouchable
abstractions and animals). answers who or what. suffixes -ness, -ment, -tion,
-sion, -ion, modified by adjectives or determiners (articles, demonstratives)
- noun class
- common nouns
- proper nouns
- collective nouns
- properties of noun (inflection/declension)
- gender: grammatical vs. natural
- feminine
- masculine
- neuter
- indicators of gender
- meaning
- prefixes (germanic)
- suffixes (foreign, romance)
- person
- first person
- second person
- third person
- number
- singular
- plural
- non-countable nouns
- case
- nominative
- posessive (genitive)
- objective (accusative/dative)
- Pronouns: substitute for noun (antecedent, with which it agrees) to avoid repetition
- Properties of pronouns
- gender
- number
- case
- person
- Classes of pronouns
- Personal pronouns
- subject pronouns
- object pronouns
- direct object
- indirect object
- prepositional object
- Reciprocal pronouns:each other, one another
- Reflexive pronouns
- emphatic pronoun use
- reflexive pronoun use
- Posessive pronoun
- relative pronoun
- Demonstrative pronoun
- specified noun
- one, ones
- indefinite pronoun
- singular
- plural
- non-counted
- other,another
- interrogative pronouns
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Modifiers
- Adjectives A.Adjectives: describes/limits (modifies) noun (or pronoun):what kind, which one, how many
- classes of adjectives
- descriptive adjectives:size, shape, age, colour, origin, material, number, opinion of noun
- participial
- derived from proper names
- limiting adjective/determiners
- quantity:numbers, repitition, division, measure, frequency
- articles
- position of adjective
- subject
- predicate
- stacking
- stacking adjectives
- stacking nouns as adjectives
- order: determiner+subjective opinions+factual description
- position in sentence and emphasis/meaning (misplaced modifiers)
- properties of adjectives: uninflected for gender, person, number or case
- comparison of adjectives
- degrees of comparison
- positive degree
- comparative
- superlative
- modes of comparison
- inflection:suffixation
- adverbially: more, most, less, least
- irregular comparisons
- Adverbs: modifies verb (or adjective, other adverb, or an entire clause):how,when,where how much?
- classes of adverbs
- place
- time
- manner
- cause
- number/instance/frequency
- degree/intensifiers
- negation/affirmation
- adverbs formed from adjectives (-ly > -like)
- comparison of adverbs
- position of adverbs
- Numerals C.Numerals
- cardinal
- ordinal
- Articles D.Articles
- definite article
- indefinite article
- position of article
- making adjectives into nouns with the article
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Verbs:action or state of being
- Verbs:action or state of being
- classes of verbs
- principal verb
- transitive:direct object
- intransitive:no object
- reflexive:object refers back to subject
- auxilliary verbs:incomplete predication joined with another. linking verb, helping verb
- regular/irregular inflection
- properties of verbs:inflections/conjugation
- voice:subject as actor of victim of verb.
- active:subject as actor
- passive:subject is acted upon
- mood:mode in which subject views action
- indicative: factually declarative or questioning
- imperative:commands, instructions, suggestions
- polite forms: use of please
- including self: let's
- formall suggestions: shall we
- instructions:using you to mean "anybody"
- indirect commands:i want x to...
- subjunctive mood:wishes, untrue situations
- aspect
- progressive: ongoing action
- non-finite forms
- infinitive
- participles
- present
- past
- gerund/verbal noun
- tense:action in time
- present
- present perfect:completed in present moment
- past
- past perfect:completed before some past time
- future
- modal auxillaries
- future perfect: to be completed before a future event
- person
- first i /we
- second you
- third he/she it they
- number
- singular
- plural
- agreement
- consistency of tense, person, mood, number
- subject verb agreement
- special forms
- quoted and reported speech
- questions within questions: "do you know who he is?"
- tag questions added to statements: isnt it? dont you?
- verbs with indirect objects/prepositional phrase
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Relationships/connectives
- Prepositions:relates object noun to antecedent word in sentence.
- types of prepositions
- indicators of place
- source
- destination
- position
- indicators of direction
- indicators of time
- other abstracted relationships
- situation
- cause
- instrument
- agency
- comparison
- connecting
- prepositional phrase
- object
- case
- function
- antecedent
- syntax
- interrogative sentences with prepositions:interr pn+auxV+S+V+prep "who is she going with?"
- order of preposition to antecedent/object
- inclusion/exclusion of prepositions
- shades of meaning
- used with verbs
- multiple meanings
- most common prepositions
- Conjunctions B.Conjunctions:connects words, phrases, clauses. defines relationship between parts.
- coordinating conjunction
- joining independent clauses
- emphasis
- types
- copulative (addition)
- disjunctive (separation)
- subordinating conjunction:introduces subordinate clause. shows relation to main clause.
- time relations
- causal relations
- resultant relations
- conditional relations (contingency)
- unexpected relations
- other relations
- correlative conjunction:pairs, first emphasises second
- conjunctive adverbs:transitions between sentences.
- time relationships
- emphasis of a fact
- additional positive information
- consequences of a statement
- opposite information
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Syntax: Syntax
- Syntax
- Parts of Sentence
- subject who or what sentence is about
- noun (essential subject)
- modifiers of subject noun (complete subject)
- compound subject: string of multiple nouns, may be connected by conjuctions
- predicate:what subject does
- types of verb
- linking verb
- transitive verb
- intransitive verb
- complements of verb: completes verb/describes subject noun or adjective
- predicate adjective
- noun object:direct or indirect
- Sentence Patterns/word order
- S+V(link)+complement (noun)
- S+V(link)+complement (adj)
- S+V(trans)+object (direct)
- S+V(trans)+object (indirect/dative) + object (direct/accusative)
- S+V(intrans)
- transposed word order
- Sentence Types/classes
- declarative:statements with normal SVO word order
- interrogative
- begins with question word [interr pron.(S)+V+comp ]
- asks a yes no question [aux.v+S+(main verb)+complement/object]
- exclamatory:emotional sentences fronted with how/what+complement+s/v
- imperative
- command
- implied subject you/you(pl):word order is otherwise normal SVO
- Sentence Structure/complexity
- simple sentence:one independent clause alone
- complex sentence: independent clause with a dependent clause
- compound sentence: multiple independent clauses
- compound-complex sentence :multiple independent clauses with at least one dependent clause
- Word Clusters
- phrase :group of related words that acts as unit in a clause. missing either subject or predicate. acts as a part of speech in sentence
- clause: has subject and predicate
- independent clause (sentence) (main clause) :complete idea
- dependent clause (subordinating clause) :incomplete idea;requires another clause to complete it.
- sentence defined:
- independent clause
- includes:
- subject
- essential
- complete
- compound
- predicate
- finite verb
- complement/object of verb
- complete idea (meaningful)
- begins with capital letter and ends with punctuation mark (period, question mark or exclamation mark)
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Phonology:Suprasegmentals
- syllables
- units of language
- nucleus/peak
- vowel
- sometimes liquids or nasals
- initial margin/onset (consonant)
- final margin/coda (consonant)
- nucleus required, margins optional
- common types
- open:CV
- closed:CVC
- stucture of language
- stong/weak syllable
- vowel length (quantity)
- consonants of margins influence strength of nucleus
- syllable division
- stress-timing:stressed at regular intervals
- syllable-timing:syllables of equal length-stacato eg. spanish
- domain of stress
- syllables
- mora
- syllable reduction/lengthening
- elision/syncope/apocope of vowels
- epenthesis/prothesis
- Stress/Accent
- Factors of Stress
- intensity/loudness
- quantity/quality/length/duration of vowel
- pitch
- prominance relative to unstressed adjacent syllables
- Stress assignment/placement/position
- fixed stress:
- fixed accent/bound accent
- demarcative/boundary signal
- predictable, always the same
- phonetic
- icelandic, czech, hungarian,welsh (polish, turkish,french)
- free stress
- moveable stress mobile
- phonemic/differentiative/distinctive lexical meaning
- morphological
- english, russian, german, (perhaps: swedish?, lithuanian?, greek?, danish? dutch? )
- unpredictable, varies word to word
- restricted
- neither bound nor free
- spanish, italian
- Degrees of Stress
- accented
- primary/heavy
- secondary
- unaccented
- tertiary
- weak/minimal
- transcription
- ipa vertical lines raised (or lowered for secondary)
- greek pitch diacritics (also used in french)
- minimal pairs: communicative function, phoneme
- contrasts of meaning
- noun/verb-adjective pairs
- word accent patterns
- roots
- verbs
- final (with strong syllable:long vowel, dipthong or short v+2cons)
- penultimate
- adjective
- noun
- aspects of root stress
- fixed: word/stem boundary
- free
- morphological:part of speech
- phonological:vowel length/syllable weight
- number of syllables
- loan words:germanic v greek/latin
- suffixes:added to roots(stem) or other afixes.
- types of accent positions
- accent neutral (no change)
- accent attracting (take accent)
- accent fixing
- aspects of sufix stress
- free/bound morphemes
- last suffix defines pattern
- inflectional/derivational suffixes
- prefixes: usually neutral
- compounds and pseudo-compounds(strings of greek afixes)
- historical instability of accent
- rhythmic changes: avoiding serial unaccented syllables-harmony
- analogy words