Morphology:Word Classes

Nominals

1. Nouns: names a person, place or thing (incl. physical objects, untouchable abstractions and animals). answers who or what. suffixes -ness, -ment, -tion, -sion, -ion, modified by adjectives or determiners (articles, demonstratives)
1. noun class
1. common nouns
2. proper nouns
3. collective nouns
2. properties of noun (inflection/declension)
1. gender: grammatical vs. natural
1. feminine
2. masculine
3. neuter
4. indicators of gender
   1. meaning
   2. prefixes (germanic)
   3. suffixes (foreign, romance)
2. person
   
   1. first person
   2. second person
   3. third person
3. number
1. singular
2. plural
3. non-countable nouns
4. case
1. nominative
2. posessive (genitive)
3. objective (accusative/dative)
2. Pronouns: substitute for noun (antecedent, with which it agrees) to avoid repetition
1. Properties of pronouns
   1. gender
   2. number
   3. case
   4. person
2. Classes of pronouns
1. Personal pronouns
1. subject pronouns
2. object pronouns
1. direct object
2. indirect object
3. prepositional object
2. Reciprocal pronouns:each other, one another
3. Reflexive pronouns
1. emphatic pronoun use
2. reflexive pronoun use
4. Posessive pronoun
5. relative pronoun
6. Demonstrative pronoun
1. specified noun
2. one, ones
7. indefinite pronoun
   1. singular
   2. plural
   3. non-counted
   4. other,another
8. interrogative pronouns

 

Modifiers

3. Adjectives A.Adjectives: describes/limits (modifies) noun (or pronoun):what kind, which one, how many
   1. classes of adjectives
   1. descriptive adjectives:size, shape, age, colour, origin, material, number, opinion of noun
   1. participial
   2. derived from proper names
   2. limiting adjective/determiners
   1. quantity:numbers, repitition, division, measure, frequency
   2. articles
   2. position of adjective
   1. subject
   2. predicate
   3. stacking
   1. stacking adjectives
   2. stacking nouns as adjectives
   3. order: determiner+subjective opinions+factual description
   4. position in sentence and emphasis/meaning (misplaced modifiers)
   3. properties of adjectives: uninflected for gender, person, number or case
   4. comparison of adjectives
   1. degrees of comparison
   1. positive degree
   2. comparative
   3. superlative
   2. modes of comparison
   1. inflection:suffixation
   2. adverbially: more, most, less, least
   3. irregular comparisons
4. Adverbs: modifies verb (or adjective, other adverb, or an entire clause):how,when,where how much?
1. classes of adverbs
1. place
2. time
3. manner
4. cause
5. number/instance/frequency
6. degree/intensifiers
7. negation/affirmation
8. adverbs formed from adjectives (-ly > -like)
2. comparison of adverbs
3. position of adverbs
5. Numerals C.Numerals
   1. cardinal
   2. ordinal
6. Articles D.Articles
   1. definite article
   2. indefinite article
   3. position of article
   4. making adjectives into nouns with the article

 

Verbs:action or state of being

6. Verbs:action or state of being
1. classes of verbs
1. principal verb
1. transitive:direct object
2. intransitive:no object
3. reflexive:object refers back to subject
2. auxilliary verbs:incomplete predication joined with another. linking verb, helping verb
3. regular/irregular inflection
2. properties of verbs:inflections/conjugation
1. voice:subject as actor of victim of verb.
1. active:subject as actor
2. passive:subject is acted upon
2. mood:mode in which subject views action
1. indicative: factually declarative or questioning
2. imperative:commands, instructions, suggestions
1. polite forms: use of please
2. including self: let's
3. formall suggestions: shall we
4. instructions:using you to mean "anybody"
5. indirect commands:i want x to...
3. subjunctive mood:wishes, untrue situations
3. aspect
   1. progressive: ongoing action
4. non-finite forms
1. infinitive
2. participles
1. present
2. past
3. gerund/verbal noun
5. tense:action in time
1. present
2. present perfect:completed in present moment
3. past
4. past perfect:completed before some past time
5. future
1. modal auxillaries
6. future perfect: to be completed before a future event
6. person
1. first i /we
2. second you
3. third he/she it they
7. number
1. singular
2. plural
3. agreement
1. consistency of tense, person, mood, number
2. subject verb agreement
4. special forms
   1. quoted and reported speech
   2. questions within questions: "do you know who he is?"
   3. tag questions added to statements: isnt it? dont you?
   4. verbs with indirect objects/prepositional phrase

Relationships/connectives

7. Prepositions:relates object noun to antecedent word in sentence.
1. types of prepositions
1. indicators of place
1. source
2. destination
3. position
2. indicators of direction
3. indicators of time
4. other abstracted relationships
1. situation
2. cause
3. instrument
4. agency
5. comparison
6. connecting
2. prepositional phrase
1. object
2. case
3. function
4. antecedent
3. syntax
1. interrogative sentences with prepositions:interr pn+auxV+S+V+prep "who is she going with?"
2. order of preposition to antecedent/object
3. inclusion/exclusion of prepositions
4. shades of meaning
1. used with verbs
2. multiple meanings
5. most common prepositions
8. Conjunctions B.Conjunctions:connects words, phrases, clauses. defines relationship between parts.
1. coordinating conjunction
1. joining independent clauses
2. emphasis
3. types
1. copulative (addition)
2. disjunctive (separation)
2. subordinating conjunction:introduces subordinate clause. shows relation to main clause.
1. time relations
2. causal relations
3. resultant relations
4. conditional relations (contingency)
5. unexpected relations
6. other relations
3. correlative conjunction:pairs, first emphasises second
4. conjunctive adverbs:transitions between sentences.
1. time relationships
2. emphasis of a fact
3. additional positive information
4. consequences of a statement
5. opposite information

 

Syntax: Syntax

1. Syntax
1. Parts of Sentence
1. subject who or what sentence is about
1. noun (essential subject)
2. modifiers of subject noun (complete subject)
3. compound subject: string of multiple nouns, may be connected by conjuctions
2. predicate:what subject does
1. types of verb
1. linking verb
2. transitive verb
3. intransitive verb
2. complements of verb: completes verb/describes subject noun or adjective
1. predicate adjective
2. noun object:direct or indirect
2. Sentence Patterns/word order
1. S+V(link)+complement (noun)
2. S+V(link)+complement (adj)
3. S+V(trans)+object (direct)
4. S+V(trans)+object (indirect/dative) + object (direct/accusative)
5. S+V(intrans)
6. transposed word order
3. Sentence Types/classes
1. declarative:statements with normal SVO word order
2. interrogative
1. begins with question word [interr pron.(S)+V+comp ]
2. asks a yes no question [aux.v+S+(main verb)+complement/object]
3. exclamatory:emotional sentences fronted with how/what+complement+s/v
4. imperative
1. command
2. implied subject you/you(pl):word order is otherwise normal SVO
4. Sentence Structure/complexity
1. simple sentence:one independent clause alone
2. complex sentence: independent clause with a dependent clause
3. compound sentence: multiple independent clauses
4. compound-complex sentence :multiple independent clauses with at least one dependent clause
5. Word Clusters
   1. phrase :group of related words that acts as unit in a clause. missing either subject or predicate. acts as a part of speech in sentence
   2. clause: has subject and predicate
   1. independent clause (sentence) (main clause) :complete idea
   2. dependent clause (subordinating clause) :incomplete idea;requires another clause to complete it.
   3. sentence defined:
   1. independent clause
   2. includes:
   1. subject
   • essential
   • complete
   • compound
   2. predicate
   • finite verb
   • complement/object of verb
   3. complete idea (meaningful)
   3. begins with capital letter and ends with punctuation mark (period, question mark or exclamation mark)

Phonology:Suprasegmentals

2. syllables
1. units of language
1. nucleus/peak
1. vowel
2. sometimes liquids or nasals
2. initial margin/onset (consonant)
3. final margin/coda (consonant)
4. nucleus required, margins optional
2. common types
1. open:CV
2. closed:CVC
3. stucture of language
3. stong/weak syllable
1. vowel length (quantity)
2. consonants of margins influence strength of nucleus
4. syllable division
1. stress-timing:stressed at regular intervals
2. syllable-timing:syllables of equal length-stacato eg. spanish
5. domain of stress
1. syllables
2. mora
6. syllable reduction/lengthening
1. elision/syncope/apocope of vowels
2. epenthesis/prothesis
3. Stress/Accent
1. Factors of Stress
1. intensity/loudness
2. quantity/quality/length/duration of vowel
3. pitch
4. prominance relative to unstressed adjacent syllables
2. Stress assignment/placement/position
1. fixed stress:
1. fixed accent/bound accent
2. demarcative/boundary signal
3. predictable, always the same
4. phonetic
5. icelandic, czech, hungarian,welsh (polish, turkish,french)
2. free stress
1. moveable stress mobile
2. phonemic/differentiative/distinctive lexical meaning
3. morphological
4. english, russian, german, (perhaps: swedish?, lithuanian?, greek?, danish? dutch? )
5. unpredictable, varies word to word
3. restricted
1. neither bound nor free
2. spanish, italian
4. Degrees of Stress
1. accented
1. primary/heavy
2. secondary
2. unaccented
3. tertiary
4. weak/minimal
5. transcription
1. ipa vertical lines raised (or lowered for secondary)
2. greek pitch diacritics (also used in french)
6. minimal pairs: communicative function, phoneme
1. contrasts of meaning
2. noun/verb-adjective pairs
7. word accent patterns
1. roots
1. verbs
• final (with strong syllable:long vowel, dipthong or short v+2cons)
• penultimate
2. adjective
• final/strong
• penultimate
3. noun
• final/strong
• penultimate
4. aspects of root stress
• fixed: word/stem boundary
• free
• morphological:part of speech
• phonological:vowel length/syllable weight
• number of syllables
• loan words:germanic v greek/latin
2. suffixes:added to roots(stem) or other afixes.
1. types of accent positions
• accent neutral (no change)
• accent attracting (take accent)
• accent fixing
• final
• penultimate
2. aspects of sufix stress
• free/bound morphemes
• last suffix defines pattern
• inflectional/derivational suffixes
3. prefixes: usually neutral
4. compounds and pseudo-compounds(strings of greek afixes)
8. historical instability of accent
1. rhythmic changes: avoiding serial unaccented syllables-harmony
2. analogy words